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A History of Wealth and Poverty: Why a Few Nations are Rich and Many Poor, by John P. Powelson.

Combined Notes For All Appendixes

  1. Commons 1934.
  2. Buchanan and Tullock 1962.
  3. Romer 1988:170.
  4. Rawls 1971.
  5. Williamson 1985.
  6. Alchian and Woodward 1988:77.
  7. The Coase theorem — which contributed to its author's winning the Nobel Prize in 1991 — might be applied to the distribution of pollution rights under the Clean Air Act of 1990. Assume that at any time and place, a certain amount of pollution is acceptable, because the wind will blow it away or air dissolve it. Companies with noxious emissions are awarded a limited number of marketable rights to pollute, set so that total pollution is no more than the acceptable level. A company whose clean-up costs are less than the market value of its rights will gain by selling them to a company whose cleanup is more costly. The total amount of pollution is contained at the acceptable level in the least costly manner. According to Coase's theorem, the final distribution of rights after trading would be the same no matter what the initial distribution. The market is therefore an efficient allocator.
    But the Coase theorem leaves many questions unanswered, as Coase himself would agree. How do we decide on the original distribution of rights? Why should a company be awarded the right to pollute just because it is already polluting? The power-diffusion process, while not necessarily adjudicating pollution rights, provides a framework to consider how any rights — over land, capital, labor, or other economic good — are allocated historically, and how the institutions of trading, financing, and adjudicating those rights are evolved. Thus we call on historical evolution rather than a round table of "wise people."
  8. Kaempfer and Lowenberg 1992: Chapter 3 and Mueller (1989). Other introductions are found in Brennan (1990), Buchanan (1979, 1984), Mueller (1990), Sandmo (1990), and Wagner and Gartney (1988).
  9. North 1981, 1990.
  10. North and Thomas 1973.
  11. Weber 1958, 1964.
  12. Bauer 1972.
  13. Boulding 1990.
  14. Brenner, Reuven 1983.
  15. E.L. Jones 1988:128.
  16. Kenneth B. Powelson assisted me in the preparation of this appendix.
  17. Hall 1970:206.
  18. Takekoshi 1930:2:354.
  19. Takekoshi 1930:2:499.
  20. Wigmore 1969:90.
  21. Bix 1986:109.
  22. Hall 1970:167.
  23. Takekoshi 1960:2:363.
  24. Takekoshi 1930:3:125.
  25. Tuchman 1984:290-96.
  26. Epstein 1991:55.
  27. de Tocqueville 1856/1955:97.
  28. Epstein 1991:245-46.
  29. Tuchman 1984:370.
  30. Black 1984:115.
  31. Berman 1983:394.
  32. Shatzmiller 1990.
  33. Braudel 1979:448.
  34. Cannon 1988:334.
  35. Cannon 1988:380.
  36. Smith, Dennis 1982
  37. Tuchman 1984:284.
  38. Miller 1987:129.
  39. Miller 1987:214.
  40. Sicard 1986:217ff.
  41. de Tocqueville 1856/1955:109.
  42. Rosenberg and Birdzell 1986:122.
  43. Kolbert and Mackay 1977:56-57; Hogue 1966:217-18.
  44. Powelson 1988: Chapter 7 (pp.67-75).
  45. Epstein 1991:129.
  46. Cannon and Griffiths 1988:225.
  47. Brenner 1985:49.
  48. Brenner 1985:51.
  49. Braudel 1979:180.
  50. Hogue 1966:52.
  51. Hogue 1966:57-58.
  52. Hogue 1966:67.
  53. Gilles 1986:82-83.
  54. Tuchman 1978:298-99.
  55. Tuchman 1978:280-81.
  56. Tuchman 1978:423-24.
  57. Tuchman 1978:471.
  58. Holborn 1959:51.
  59. Bobrick 1987:329.
  60. Miller 1987:18.
  61. Miller 1987:179.
  62. Miller 1987:246.
  63. Ozouf 1989:494-503.
  64. Craig 1988:90.
  65. Bottigheimer 1982:182.
  66. Berman 1977:926.
  67. Miller 1987:29.
  68. Hibbert 1987:187.
  69. Miller 1987:29-30.
  70. Holborn 1959:299-300.
  71. Braudel 1984:185.
  72. Holborn 1959:340.
  73. Cannon and Griffiths 1988:526.
  74. EBMa 1974:19:761.
  75. EBMa 1974:19:762.
  76. EBMa 1974:19:763.
  77. EBMa 1974:6:1007.
  78. EBMa 1974:6:490.
  79. Lewis 1988:187.
  80. Alpers 1975:517.
  81. Levtzion 1976:116.
  82. EBMa 1974:.
  83. Levtzion 1975:160-61.
  84. Fisher 1975:64.
  85. Fisher 1975:85-86.
  86. Fisher 1975:129.
  87. Shinnie 1965:142.
  88. Wilks 1976:435.
  89. Alpers 1975:527.
  90. Adeleye 1976:573.
  91. Gray 1975:7.
  92. Gray 1975:11.
  93. Rodney 1975:234.
  94. Rodney 1975:257.
  95. Birmingham 1975:344.
  96. Birmingham 1975:371.
  97. Abir 1975:553.
  98. Alpers 1975:524.
  99. Levtzion 1975:168.
  100. Levtzion 1975:216.
  101. Marks and Gray 1975:436.
  102. Rodney 1975:280.
  103. Birmingham 1975:373-74.
  104. Marks and Gray 1975:458.
  105. Unomah and Webster 1976:289.
  106. Unomah and Webster 1976:270-77.
  107. Fisher 1975:121.
  108. Unomah and Webster 1976:284.
  109. Fisher 1975:141.
  110. Hopkins 1973:127.
  111. Johnson 1976:102.
  112. Harms 1981:43.
  113. Horton 1976:106.
  114. Horton 1976:76-77.
  115. Horton 1976:110.
  116. Wilks 1976:427; Hopkins 1973:47.
  117. Wilks 1986:421.
  118. Marks and Gray 1975:400.
  119. Birmingham 1975:381, who cites Mainga 1973.
  120. Marks 1975:400.
  121. Alpers 1975:478.
  122. Alpers 1975:480-81.
  123. Marks and Gray 1975:438.
  124. Suret Canale and Barry 1976:504.
  125. Wilks 1976:449.
  126. Birmingham 1975:372.
  127. Alpers 1975:514.
  128. Hopkins 1973:62.
  129. Richmond 1977:63.
  130. Unomah and Webster 1975:303.
  131. Birmingham 1976:260-61.
  132. Marks and Gray 1975:417.
  133. Hopkins 1973:21-23.
  134. Harms 1981:151.
  135. Chanock 1985:160.
  136. Harms 1981:35, 177.
  137. Fisher 1975:101.
  138. Harms 1981:35.
  139. Fisher 1975:97.
  140. Chanock 1985:163, attributed to M. Phiri, "Chewa History in Central Malawi and the Use of the Oral Tradition," Ph.D. thesis, Wisconsin, 1975.
  141. Birmingham 1975:372.
  142. 1981:169.
  143. Harms 1981:224.
  144. Hopkins 1973:225.
  145. Marques 1976:89.
  146. Chanock 1985:235.
  147. Chanock 1985:13-15.
  148. Chanock 1985:169.
  149. Chanock 1985:170.
  150. New York Times, 8/25/81.
  151. Ibrahim, Youssef M., in New York Times, 11/27/88.
  152. University of Wisconsin, Land Tenure Center Newsletter No. 68.
  153. Brooke, James in New York Times, 11/01/87.
  154. Rule, Sheila, in New York Times, 06/09/85.
  155. Cowell, Alan, in New York Times, 04/21/82.
  156. See also articles in the New York Times,11/2/83, 11/15/87, 11/19/89, 2/25/90, and 3/3/90.
  157. As Senior Economic Advisor at the Ministry, I participated in preparing the revisions.
  158. Rule, Sheila, in New York Times, 6/5/85. See also articles in New York Times, 6/10/84, 6/11/84, 6/5/85, 7/3/85, 4/13/86, 8/15/89, and 1/31/90.
  159. May, Clifford, New York Times, 6/11/84.
  160. Ibrahimn, Youssef M., "In Algeria, Hope for Democracy but not Economy," New York Times, 7/26/91.
  161. Wall Street Journal, 12/30/80.
  162. Brooke, James, in New York Times, 8/11/88. See also articles in New York Times on 11/21/82, 2/12/83, 1/8/84, 10/2/85, 3/4/86, 6/22/88, 6/4/89, 8/11/88, and 1/14/90.
  163. Brooke, James, in New York Times, 11/23/87.
  164. Brooke, James, in New York Times, 3/6/88.
  165. Morris and Read 1976:264.
  166. New York Times, 8/19/87.
  167. Brooke, James, in New York Times, 09/29/88
  168. Greenhouse, Steven, in New York Times, 05/24/88.
  169. Greenhouse, Steven, in New York Times, 05/04/88.
  170. See New York Times, 08/09/81, 08/10/81, 08/16/81. 08/30/81, 06/18/82, 06/06/83 (article on torture), 10/06/83, 10/25/83, 04/13/86, 12/14/86, 02/04/87, 02/08/87, for a small sample.
  171. Editorial in New York Times, 12/15/86.
  172. Moseley, Ray, in Chicago Tribune. From Boston Globe, 09/25/81.
  173. World Bank 1977:82.
  174. New York Times, 10/15/81.
  175. Markham, James M., "King Hassan's Quagmire," New York Times Magazine, 4/27/80.
  176. Rule, Sheila, in New York Times, 7/13/87.
  177. Brooke, James, in New York Times, 1/31/86.
  178. Thurow, Roger, in Wall Street Journal, 9/12/88.
  179. May, Clifford, in New York Times, 9/165/87; Hardin, Blaine, in Washington Post Weekly, 1/18/88; and Rule, Sheila, in New York Times, 4/29/88.
  180. Time Magazine, 1/16/84.
  181. Perlez, Jane, New York Times Magazine, 11/6/88.
  182. New York Times, 9/17/81 and 9/30/81.
  183. Noble, Kenneth B., New York Times, 1/31/90.
  184. Brooke, James, New York Times, 3/22/87.
  185. Battersby, John D., New York Times, 11/9/87; Wren, Christopher, New York Times, 1/29/89.
  186. Lescaze, Lee, Wall Street Journal, 7/24/85.
  187. Kaufman, Michael, New York Times, 9/26/83. Other New York Times references to intertribal violence in Zimbabwe occur on 7/24/80, 7/25/80, 11/16/80, 10/8/81, 6/11/84, 3/3/85, 12/21/87, and 12/23/87.
  188. Wolpert 1977:99.
  189. Lewis 1988:164.
  190. Wolpert 1977:110.
  191. Ludden 1985:44.
  192. Ludden 1985:49-50.
  193. Ludden 1985:59.
  194. Ludden 1985:72.
  195. Wolpert 1977:168ff.
  196. Gordon 1979:65.
  197. Gordon 1979:66.
  198. Ludden 1985:97.
  199. Creel 1980:28.
  200. Billeter 1985:165.
  201. Santangelo 1985:269.
  202. Hulsewe 1985:221-22.
  203. Spence 1987:1.
  204. Loewe 1985:259.
  205. Jacobs 1958:31.
  206. Jacobs 1958:30.
  207. Eberhard 1977:253.
  208. Grimm 1985:28.
  209. Santangelo 1985:274.
  210. Grimm 1985:34.
  211. Eberhard 1977:274.
  212. Fairbank, Reischauer and Craig 1978:752.
  213. Butterfield, Fox, "China Eases Policy of Sending Youth to Countryside," New York Times, 12/5/78.
  214. Butterfield, Fox, New York Times, 3/27/79.
  215. Butterfield, Fox, "China's Liberalized Farm Rules Pay Off for Peasants," New York Times, 4/5/80.
  216. Butterfield, Fox, "China Trades the Little Red Book for a Little Adam Smith," New York Times, 9/7/80.
  217. Wren, Christopher S., "China Offers Output Incentive," New York Times, 3/23/83.
  218. Bennett, Amanda, "Despite Deng's Quest for a Credible China, Truth Remains Elusive," Wall Street Journal, 7/30/85.
  219. Shirk, Susan L., "Still Moving Toward Market Socialism," New York Times, 9/29/85.
  220. Leung, Julia, "Beijing Orders Sweeping Cuts in Investment," Wall Street Journal, 10/10/88.
  221. Kristof, Nicholas D., "Beijing Authority Being Challenged by Local Powers," New York Times, 12/11/88.
  222. WuDunn, Sheryl, "China Cracks Down on Private Work," New York Times, 11/08/89.
  223. Eberhard 1977:24-26.
  224. Eberhard 1977:50.
  225. Loewe 1985:240.
  226. Fairbank, Reischauer and Craig 1978:78.
  227. Fairbank, Reischauer and Craig 1978:82.
  228. Eberhard 1977:95-6.
  229. Eberhard 1977:101.
  230. Loewe 1985:250.
  231. Loewe 1985:252.
  232. Eberhard 1977:111.
  233. Eberhard 1977:112-13.
  234. Eberhard 1977:109.
  235. Eberhard 1977:118.
  236. Eberhard 1977:122.
  237. Powelson 1988:164.
  238. 1977:144.
  239. Eberhard 1977:181.
  240. Lewis 1988:8.
  241. Eberhard 1977:212.
  242. Eberhard 1977:214.
  243. Eberhard 1977:216.
  244. Eberhard 1977:226.
  245. Will 1985:302.
  246. Eberhard 1977:254.
  247. Eberhard 1977:286-87.
  248. Eberhard 1977:277.
  249. Santangelo 1985:278.
  250. Creel 1980:46.
  251. Cohen 1980:10.
  252. Hulsewe 1985:213.
  253. Eberhard 1977:79.
  254. Jacobs 1958:35.
  255. Brockman 1980:89.
  256. Brockman 1980;106.
  257. Fairbank, Reischauer and Craig 1978:907.
  258. Fairbank, Reischauer and Craig 1978:907.
  259. Fairbank, Reischauer and Craig 1978:919.
  260. MacFarquhar 1983:330.
  261. Bennett, Amanda, "In Today's New China, Red Guards of the '60s Are a Lost Generation," Wall Street Journal, 1/4/85.
  262. "Chinese, in a Flush of Candor, Say Things Aren't All Working Right," New York Times, 11/11/78.
  263. Butterfield, Fox, "China's Road to Progress is Mostly Uphill," New York Times, 2/4/79.
  264. Wren, Christopher S., "Chinese Trying to Undo Damage in Tibet," New York Times, 5/3/83.
  265. Wren, Christopher S., "China Reagan Will Visit Unlike That Nixon Saw," New York Times, 4/24/84.
  266. Bennett, Amanda, "China Plans a Transformation of Economy to Unpeg Prices, Reduce State Planning Role," Wall Street Journal, 10/11/84.
  267. Sterba, James P., and Bennett, Amanda, "Peking Turns Sharply Down Capitalist Road in New Economic Plan," Wall Street Journal, 10/25/84.
  268. Drucker, Peter F., "No Jobs for the Millions is China's Nemesis," Wall Street Journal, 11/19/87.
  269. Ignatius, Adi, "Despite Recent Gains, China is Again Facing a Shortage of Grain," Wall Street Journal, 1/19/88.
  270. Kristoff, Nicholas D., "Chinese Local Powers Facing Cash Shortage," New York Times, 4/15/89.
  271. Ignatius, Adi, "For China's Managers, Keeping Plants Going is a Daily Struggle," Wall Street Journal, 4/13/90.
  272. Sterba, James P., "Peking Congress Meets to Adopt Economic Change, New Leaders," New York Times, 8/31/80.
  273. Ignathius, David, "Reagan to find a China Considerably Changed by Deng's Pragmatism," Wall Street Journal, 4/23/84.
  274. Wren, Christopher S., "Chinese Take 'Free' Out of Enterprise," New York Times, 9/15/84.
  275. Wren, Christopher S., "China's Cities to Get More Capitalism," New York Times, 11/14/84.
  276. Wren, Christopher S., "Chinese Announce Sweeping Changes in their Economy," New York Times, 10/21/84.
  277. Wren, Christopher S., "China's Forgotten Corner Dreams of Days to Come," New York Times, 11/23/84.
  278. Wall Street Journal, 1/2/85.
  279. Wang, David, "Tibet's Proud People Chafe Under Chinese Rule," Wall Street Journal, 9/9/85.
  280. Gargan, Edward A., "Chinese Official Urges Moderation," New York Times, 3/26/88.
  281. Gargan, Edward A., "China Gives Managers Greater Control in Industry," New York Times, 4/14/88.
  282. Gargan, Edward A., "The Short March to Capitalism Takes a Great Leap," New York Times, 4/22/88.
  283. House, Karen Elliott, "Beijing Vice Premier Vows to Press Reform on Nation's Economy," Wall Street Journal, 12/10/93.
  284. Burns, John F., "Citing Declines in Grain, China Defers on Policy," New York Times, 1/1/86.
  285. Editorial, Wall Street Journal, 9/8/96.
  286. Gargan, Edward A., "Opposition Astir over Economy in China," New York Times, 2/1/87.
  287. Gargan, Edward A., "China Halts Plan for Curb on Party," New York Times, 3/23/87.
  288. Gargan, Edward A., "Chinese Premier, in Major Speech, Adopts Hard Line," New York Times, 3/26/87.
  289. Gargan, Edward A., "China Reining in Economy's Shift to a Free Market," New York Times, 10/17/88.
  290. Kristof, Nicholas D., "China Again Moves Central Planning to Center Stage," New York Times, 3/21/89.
  291. Butler 1977:68.
  292. Dewey 1977:61-2.
  293. Blum 1961:262.
  294. Kleimola 1977:30.
  295. Raeff 1984:4.
  296. Raeff 1984:4-5.
  297. Keller, Bill, "Soviet Miners Seek Control of Union," New York Times, 9/17/89.
  298. Keller, Bill, "Gorbachev's Grand Plan: Is It Real or a Pipe Dream?" New York Times, 12/5/88.
  299. Keller, Bill, "Soviet Progressive Seek to Form an Independent Bloc," New York Times, 4/23/89.
  300. Starr, S. Frederick, "The Disintegration of the Soviet State," Wall Street Journal, 2/6/90.
  301. Solchanyk, Roman, "Red Storm Rising in the Ukraine," Wall Street Journal, 6/6/89.
  302. Starr, S. Frederick, "Scenes from a New Revolution," in a book review of The New Russians, by Hedrick Smith, New York Times Book Review, 12/9/90.
  303. Remnick, David, "Lithuania and Goliath," Washington Post Weekly, 8/21-27/89.
  304. Clines, Francis X., "Defiance of Kremlin's Control is Accelerating in Soviet Asia," New York Times, 7/1/90.
  305. Smith, R.E.F., 1971:1966.
  306. Lawrence 1978:43.
  307. Blum 1961:94.
  308. Lawrence 1978:86-87.
  309. Lawrence 1978:85.
  310. From S.M. Solov'ev, quoted by Bartlett 1974:4 and by Dukes 1977:108.
  311. Bobrick 1987:202.
  312. Kahan 1989:160.
  313. Lawrence 1978:122.
  314. Lawrence 1978:154.
  315. Berman 1963:195.
  316. Blum 1961:140.
  317. Berman 1963:199-200.
  318. Berman 1963:223.
  319. Bobrick 1987:208.
  320. EBMa 1974:16:48.
  321. Raeff 1984:63.
  322. EBMa 1974:16:54.
  323. Braudel 1973:424.
  324. Braudel 1973:408.
  325. Dukes 1977:106.
  326. Dukes 1977:110.
  327. Raeff 1984:29.
  328. Raeff 1984:31.
  329. EBMa 1974:16:58.
  330. Raeff 1984:147.
  331. Lawrence 1978:42.
  332. Blum 1961:139.
  333. Blum 1961;143.
  334. Kleimola 1977:35.
  335. Bobrick 1987:77.
  336. Bobrick 1987:329.
  337. Marques 1972:79.
  338. Payne 1973:1:5.
  339. Payne 1973:1:8.
  340. Marques 1972:189.
  341. Marques1972:206.
  342. Wilson 1967:494.
  343. Payne 1973:224.
  344. Melko and Hord 1984:42.
  345. Marques 1972:317-18.
  346. Lynch 1981:1:63.
  347. Lynch 1981:1:112.
  348. Lynch 1981:1:124.
  349. Marques 1972:265.
  350. Lynch 1981:1:137.
  351. Lynch 1981:1:141.
  352. Elliott 1984:137.
  353. Payne 1973:293.
  354. Payne 1973:101.
  355. Lynch 1981:1:16.
  356. Lynch 1981:1:109.
  357. Lynch 1981:1:119.
  358. Lynch 1981:1:230.
  359. Payne 1981:2:2.
  360. Lewis 1988:84.
  361. Lynch 1981:7-8.
  362. Payne 1973:59.
  363. Lynch 1981:1:43.
  364. Lynch 1981:2:281.
  365. Payne 1973:270.
  366. Payne 1973:157.
  367. Lynch 1981:1:18.
  368. Payne 1973:273.
  369. Marques 1972:95.
  370. Marques 1972:184-5.
  371. Lynch 1981:1:124.
  372. Payne 1973:356.
  373. Payne 1973:384.
  374. Brenner 1985:35.
  375. Payne 1973:166.
  376. Payne 1973:175.
  377. Payne 1973:176.
  378. Payne 1973:313-4.
  379. Payne 1973:323.
  380. Payne 1973:352.
  381. Lynch 1981:2:153.
  382. Riding, Alan, "Getting Mexico Moving Again," New York Times Magazine, 07/04/82.
  383. Ulman, Neil, "Mexicans Feel Pinch of Austerity Measures but are Stoic About it," Wall Street Journal, 11/15/85.
  384. Meislin, Richard J., "Mexico's Perpetual Political Machine," New York Times, 6/30/85.
  385. Meislin, Richard J., "Mexico's Election: Nation's Image May Have Lost," New York Times, 7/16/85.
  386. Asman, David, "The PRI's 'Cure' in Southern Mexico," Wall Street Journal, 3/3/87.
  387. Riding, Alan, "Mexican President Emphasizes Farming," New York Times, 4/9/80.
  388. Walsh, Mary Williams, "Poor People of Mexico, Afraid of Protesting, Endure Much Injustice," Wall Street Journal, 12/29/86.
  389. Rohter, Larry, "Battleground in Mexico: Union Power," New York Times, 1/12/89; Moffett, Matt, "Mexico's President Asserts his Authority." Wall Street Journal, 1/12/89.
  390. Riding, Alan, "The Crisis in Mexico," New York Times, 8/23/82.
  391. Kandell, Jonathan, "Mexico City's Growth, Once Fostered, Turns into Economic Burden," Wall Street Journal. 10/04/85.
  392. "In the Shadow of the Dollar," editorial in New York Times, 8/25/82.
  393. Frazier, Steve, "Earthquake Aftermath Points up Weaknesses of Mexican Leadership," Wall Street Journal, 10/15/85.
  394. Walsh, Mary Williams, "When Mill in Mexico is Closed, It Can Take Some Time to Shut," Wall Street Journal, 10/13/86.
  395. Walsh, Mary Williams, "Poor People of Mexico, Afraid of Protesting, Endure Much Injustice," Wall Street Journal, 12/29/86.
  396. Rohter, Larry, "Divestment Efforts in Mexico Debated," New York Times, 4/13/87.
  397. Asman, David, "Has the Mexican Government Rigged the Oil Business?" Wall Street Journal, 2/6/87.
  398. Kinzer, Stephen, "One Marxist's Mission: To Outvote Sandinistas," New York Times, 10/7/84.
  399. Lowenstein, Roger, "Sandinistas Stir Up Much Dissatisfaction Among Rich and Poor," Wall Street Journal, 6/20/84.
  400. Kinzer, Stephen, "Sandinista is Favored but Runs Hard," New York Times, 10/30/84.
  401. Gruson, Lindsey, "Ex-Contras, Citing Broken Promises, Seize Land and Talk Again of War," New York Times, 10/29/90.
  402. Kinzer, Stephen, "Nicaragua: The Beleaguered Revolution," New York Times Magazine, 3/28/83.
  403. Time, 4/16/84. Also quoted in Powelson and Stock 1990:323.
  404. Lowenstein, Roger, "Sandinistas Stir Up Much Dissatisfaction Among Rich and Poor," Wall Street Journal, 6/20/84.
  405. Lange, Timothy, "Former Nun Roasts Sandinista Government," Colorado Daily (Boulder, Colorado), 11/30/84.
  406. Asman, David, "Despair and Fear in Managua," Wall Street Journal, 3/25/85.
  407. Krauss, Clifford, "How One Businessman Manages to Survive Nicaraguan Sandinistas," Wall Street Journal, 10/8/85.
  408. LeMoyne, James, "Along the Honduran Border, the Peasant Refugees Rally to the Contras, New York Times, 3/4/87.
  409. Uhlig, Mark A., "In the Democracy of Nicaragua, Control is Still from the Top, New York Times, 9/23/90.
  410. Kinzer, Stephen, "Sandinistas Seek to Win Credibly," New York Times, 7/29/84.
  411. Uhlig, Mark A., "Strikes Testing Chamorro's Rule," New York Times, 5/16/90; other articles by Uhlig 4/24, 5/18, 5/30, 7/11, 7/12, and 7/13/90.
  412. Gruson, Lindsey, "In Managua, Chamorro Takes Hold," New York Times, 6/17/90.
  413. Rowe 1957:161-3, cited in Randall 1977:4:30.
  414. Randall 1977:4:54.
  415. Randall 1977:4:32.
  416. Randall 1977:4:55.
  417. Randall 1977:4:76.
  418. Randall 1977:4:84.
  419. Randall 1977:4:101.
  420. From a senate commission; cited by Randall 1977:4:129.
  421. Randall 1977:4:140.
  422. Guillet 1978.
  423. Riding, Alan, "Garcia Asks for Change and Peruvians Say Sí!" New York Times, 12/25/85.
  424. de Onis, Juan, "Peru's New Chief Won by Shrewd Use of Military Issues," New York Times, 5/21/80.
  425. Riding, Alan, "In Peru, a New Personality Attracts a Cult," New York Times, 8/4/85.
  426. Gilpin, Kenneth N., "A Consensus on Latin Debt," New York Times, 9/10/83.
  427. Riding, Alan, "Peru, in Economic Disarray, Directs its Anger at the President," New York Times, 10/20/88.
  428. Riding, Alan, "Family Farming Replaces Collectivization in Peru," New York Times, 12/11/88.
  429. Randall 1977:3:140.
  430. Cehelsky 1979:25-6.
  431. McDowell, Edwin, "Brazil Alters its Export Mix," New York Times, 1/7/79.
  432. Hoge, Warren, "Brazil is Seeking to Untangle Itself from Red Tape," New York Times, 10/2/79.
  433. Hoge, Warren, "Brazil Hopes to Make a Semi-Desert Bloom," New York Times, 5/18/80.
  434. Hodge, Warren, "Brazil's Economy After the Miracle," New York Times, 7/17/83.
  435. Hoge, Warren, "As the Fortunes of Brazil Founder, Jobless Make a Profession of Peddling," New York Times, 7/22/83.
  436. Pine, Art, "Brazil's Foreign Debt Seems Under Control As Domestic Ills Grow," Wall Street Journal, 12/5/85.
  437. Campos, Roberto (former Minister of Finance), "A Protectionist Monster Threatens Brazil's Development," Wall Street Journal, 1/29/88.
  438. Riding, Alan, "Improving Brazilian Social Welfare Proves Far Easier Said than Done," New York Times, 8/9/88.
  439. Editorial, New York Times, 8/29/88.
  440. Cohen, Roger, "Brazil's Price Spiral Nears Hyperinflation, Could Ruin Economy," Wall Street Journal, 12/8/88.
  441. Bridges, Tyler, "Brazil Attacks Capital Flight, but What of its Causes?" Wall Street Journal, 1/20/89.
  442. Cockburn, Alexander, "Brazil's Poor Get Hungrier on Bare-Bones IMF Menu," Wall Street Journal, 3/23/89.
  443. de Onis, Juan, "O.A.S. Meeting to Focus on Human Rights Violations," New York Times, 11/16/80.
  444. Schumacher, Edward, "Argentina's Jubilant Rebirth of Politics," New York Times, 7/21/82.
  445. Schumacher, Edward, "Argentina's Jubilant Rebirth of Politics," New York Times, 7/21/82.
  446. Ulman, Neil, "Argentine Democracy Faces Debt Problems, Trouble from Unions," Wall Street Journal, 2/24/84.
  447. Schumacher, Edward, "Defending Argentina's New Democracy," New York Times Magazine, 6/10/84.
  448. New York Times. 8/23/84.
  449. Diehl, Jackson, "Alfonsín's Political Cure for Argentina's Economy Isn't Working," Washington Post, 9/17/84.
  450. Cardenas, Emilio J., "Argentine Politics Must Cool Down," New York Times, 11/20/84.
  451. Chavez, Lydia, "Leader Imposes a State of Siege on Argentina," New York Times, 10/26/85.
  452. Chavez, Lydia, "Perón's Movement Splits Wide Open," New York Times, 2/13/85.
  453. Christian, Shirley, "The Argentina Leadership is Shaken by Setbacks," New York Times, 11/29/87.
  454. O'Donnell 1978:138.
  455. Schumacher, Edward G., "Defending Argentina's New Democracy," New York Times Magazine, 6/10/84.
  456. Helguera, Eduardo, "Argentina's Ghost-Chasers Stalk the Economy," Wall Street Journal, 2/15/85.
  457. Hatch, George, "Argentine Election Lacks Credible Opposition Party," Wall Street Journal, 10/31/85.
  458. Tanoira, Manuel J., "Confessions of an Argentine Privatizer," Wall Street Journal, 5/29/87.
  459. Christian, Shirley, "Argentina's Woeful Services," New York Times, 10/13/87.
  460. Graham, Bradley, "Don't Dial for Me, Argentina," Washington Post Weekly, 2/15-22/88.
  461. Tanoira, Manuel, "U.S. Bailout of Argentina: More of the Same Poison," Wall Street Journal, 8/12/88.
  462. Cohen, Roger, "Argentine Trains, Economy Spin Wheels," Wall street Journal, 3/2/89.
  463. National Bureau of Economic Research paper no. 2897, as described by Clark, Lindley H., "Argentina Has Plenty to Cry About," Wall Street Journal, 5/24/89.
  464. Christian, Shirley, "Another Crisis in Argentina is Prompting Radical Ideas," New York Times, 2/12/90.
  465. Kandell, Jonathan, "Argentines, as Usual, See Country Averting Plunge into Poverty," Wall Street Journal, 6/22/89.
  466. Christian, Shirley, "Argentines See Spread of Poverty's Pain, and Start to Believe It," New York Times, 7/22/90.
  467. de Onis, Juan, "Argentina's Economic Skid Mars the Junta's Record," New York Times, 8/17/80.
  468. Schumacher, Edward, "Argentine Debt: A Case Study," New York Times, 3/12/84.
  469. Cohen, Roger, "After a Long Decline, Argentina is Striving to Revive Economy," Wall Street Journal, 11/12/86.
  470. "Argentina Acts to Acquit Military," Reuters, New York Times, 12/23/86; "Justice Diluted in Argentina, editorial, New York Times, 2/25/87.
  471. Epstein 1991:46.
  472. Browning 1971:61.
  473. Browning 1971:42.
  474. Ostrogorsky 1966:212.
  475. Lewis 1988:55-56.
  476. Finley, Smith, and Duggan 1987:57.
  477. Cahen 1970:530.
  478. Kunt 1983:31.
  479. Findley 1980:121-22.
  480. Findley 1980:13-15.
  481. Findley 1980:7.
  482. Haider 1966:169.
  483. Richmond 1977:56.
  484. Findley 1980:152.
  485. Lambton 1953:385.
  486. Editorial, "Sketches of the Iraqi and Kuwaiti Leaders," New York Times, 8/3/90.
  487. Martin, Douglas, "Saudi Arabia's New Capitalism," New York Times, 2/21/82.
  488. Reed, Stanley, "Syria's Assad: His Power and His Plan," New York Times Magazine, 2/19/84.
  489. Bakhash, Shaul, "Iran, 5 Years Later, Divided and in Conflict," New York Times, 2/10/84.
  490. Sciolino, Elaine, "The Big Brother: Iraq Under Saddam Hussein," New York Times Magazine, 2/3/85.
  491. Browning 1987:34.
  492. Epstein 1991:46-47. The inner quotation is from Boak 1928:609.
  493. Lewis 1988:57.
  494. Lewis 1988:30-31.
  495. Findley 1980:14.
  496. Findley 1980:19.
  497. Findley 1980:27.
  498. Findley 1980:39.
  499. Issawi 1971:288-89.
  500. Carsten 1959:6.
  501. Carsten 1959:9,
  502. Carsten 1959:353.
  503. Carsten 1959:150.
  504. Carsten 1959:217.
  505. Carsten 1959:359.
  506. Carsten 1959:431.
  507. Gross 1974:15-16.
  508. Rose 1974:67.
  509. Carsten 1959:198-99.
  510. Carsten 1959:266.
  511. Melko and Hord 1984:31.
  512. Carsten 1959:155-56.
  513. Carsten 1959:169.
  514. Carsten 1959:208.
  515. Carsten 1959:362.
  516. Greenhouse, Steve, "Algerians' Misfortune: 'Quick Blow' From Oil," New York Times, 10/12/88.
  517. Christian, Shirley, "Another Crisis in Argentina is Prompting Radical Ideas," New York Times, 2/12/90.
  518. Martin, Everett G., "Bolivian's Difficulties Have Them Worrying About the Next Coup," Wall Street Journal, 3/2/84.
  519. Cockburn, Alexander, "Piggies at Market: The Brazilian Paradigm, Wall Street Journal, 4/12/90.
  520. Erlanger, Steven, "Burmese Military is Forcing Mass Migration from Cities," New York Times, 3/21/90.
  521. French, Howard W., "Sugar's Bitter Harvest: Slave Labor?" New York Times, 4/27/90.
  522. Brooke, James, "African Nation Opens Door to French," New York Times, 11/1/87.
  523. Rosewicz, Barbara, "Factory Owner Joins Egypt's Export Push but Runs Into Hurdles," New York Times, 11/11/85.
  524. Perletz, Jane, "Ethiopians Driven From Good Earth," New York Times, 9/12/89.
  525. Rule, Sheila, "Ghana's Women Maintain their Corner on the Marketplace," New York Times, 6/9/85.
  526. Kouril, Kathleen, "Fear and Crumbling in Rawlings's Ghana," New York Times, 4/17/87.
  527. Danner, Mark D., "The Struggle for a Democratic Haiti," New York Times Magazine, 6/21/87:59.
  528. Primorac, Max, "New Honduran Game Plan Depends on Follow-Through," Wall Street Journal, 3/23/90.
  529. Kinzer, Stephen, "Honduran Judge, in Jail, Ponders Quality of Justice," New York Times, 4/2/85.
  530. Passell, Peter, "India's Slow-Growth Path," New York Times, 3/18/87.
  531. Rosett, Claudia, "Indonesia Vote Marks Development Crossroad," Wall Street Journal, 4/20/87.
  532. Mylroie, Laurie, "Saddam Was in Desperate Trouble," Wall Street Journal, 8/10/90.
  533. Kilson, Martin, and Cottingham, Clement, "In Africa, Democracy Needs Some Help," New York Times, 2/2/90.
  534. Noble, Kenneth B., "Doe Lives High as Liberian Economy Erodes," New York Times, 3/26/90.
  535. Alisky, Marvin, "Tapping the Resources of Mexico's Underground Economy," Wall Street Journal, 12/30/88.
  536. Schwartz, Ethan, "Morocco's Plutocracy Strangles Capitalism," Wall Street Journal, 8/17/89.
  537. Brooke, James, "An Agile Nigerian President Keeps Troubles at Bay and Himself at Top," New York Times, 8/11/88.
  538. Crosette, Barbara, "Bhutto Finds New Era Is Still an Elusive Goal," New York Times, 11/08/89.
  539. Vargas Llosa, Mario, "In Defense of the Black Market," New York Times Magazine, 2/27/87:45.
  540. Gupte, Pranbay B., "Senegal, Once France's Star Colony, Sees Glory Dim," New York Times, 9/17/80.
  541. May, Clifford D., "In Sierra Leone, Diamonds and Decay," New York Times, 6/21/84.
  542. Editorial, New York Times, 6/18/90.
  543. Reed, Stanley, "Syria's Assad: His Power and His Plan," New York Times Magazine, 2/19/84:57.
  544. Perlez, Jane, "Tanzanian Economy Is Still Limping Despite Outside Money," New York Times, 3/18/90.
  545. Laber, Jeri, "Cruel and Usual Punishment," New York Review, 7/20/89:34.
  546. Lowenstein, Roger, "In Venezuela, Name of Cisneros Connotes Wealth and Influence," New York Times, 2/21/85.
  547. Brooke, James, "Two Vultures in Zaire: Corruption and Neglect," New York Times, 2/4/87.
  548. Hawkins, Tony, "Illusionary Prosperity in Zimbabwe," New York Times, 11/08/88.
  549. Lewis, Paul, "World Bank Plan for Aid to Africa Divides Members," New York Times, 9/16/84.
  550. Kilborn, Peter P., "Shifts Sought at Latin Bank," New York Times, 5/26/86.
  551. Rosen, Hobart, "Conable's World Bank," Washington Post National Weekly Edition, 7/14/86.
  552. Bovard, James, "World Bank Confidentially Damns Itself," Wall Street Journal, 9/23/87.
  553. Pearson, David G., and Lachica, Eduardo, "IMF Creates $8.4 Billion Facility For Poorest Nations, Marking Shift," Wall Street Journal, 12/30/87. Also, IMF Press Release, 12/29/87, reported in IMF Survey, 1/11/88.
  554. Melloan, George, "I2D2's Problem: Empires Usually Strike Back," Wall Street Journal, 3/8/88.
  555. de Soto, Hernando, "A Latin American View of the Brady Plan," Wall Street Journal, 5/19/89.
  556. Drucker, Peter F., "The Rise and Fall of the Blue Collar Worker," Wall Street Journal, 4/22/87.
  557. Simpson, Janice C., "A Shallow Labor Pool Spurs Businesses to Act to Bolster Education," Wall Street Journal, 9/28/87.
  558. Wilson, William, 1987.
  559. Reubens, Edwin P., "Low-Skill Jobs have Migrated, not Vanished," Letter to the Editor, New York Times, 12/9/87.
  560. Drucker, Peter F., "Low Wages No Longer Give Competitive Edge," Wall Street Journal, 3/16/88.
  561. Labor Letter, New York Times, 8/16/88.
  562. "The Forgotten Half: Pathways to Success for America's Youth and Young Families." New York Times, 11/19/88.
  563. "Many in U.S. Face Bleak Job Outlook," New York Times, 11/19/88.
  564. Fiske, Edward B., "Impending U.S. Jobs 'Disaster': Work Force Unqualified to Work," New York Times, 9/25/89.
  565. Uchitelle, Louis, "Surplus of College Graduates Dims Job Outlook for Others," New York Times, 6/18/90.
  566. Bluestone, Barry, and Harrison, Bennett, "The Grim Truth About the Job MIracle," New York Times 2/1/87.
  567. Brookes, Warren T., "Low-Pay Jobs: The Big Lie," Wall Street Journal, 3/25/87.
  568. Manegold, Catherine S., "Study Warns of Growing Underclass of the Unskilled," New York Times, 6/3/94.
  569. Morris and Read 1972:186.
  570. Richmond 1977:200.
  571. Hopkins 1973:253.
  572. Riding, Alan, "Brazilians Still Await Land Grant," New York Times, 4/8/86.
  573. Hazarika, Sanjoy, "India's Farmers Seek to Share in the Peanuts," New York Times, 2/5/84.
  574. Powelson and Stock 1990:63-4.
  575. Orme, William A., Jr., "Mexico's Promised Land: After 70 Years, Peasants Still Fight," Washington Post Weekly, 5/27/85.
  576. Alisky, Marvin, "Tapping the Resources of Mexico's Underground Economy," Wall Street Journal, 12/30/88.
  577. Uhlig, Mark A., "15,000 Opponents of Sandinistas Hold Protest March in Nicaragua," New York Times, 1/16/89.
  578. Treaster, Joseph E., "Protests Resume in Haiti, Posing New Challenge to Duvalier Regime," New York Times, 1/9/86.
  579. Haberman, Clyde, "Fury and Turmoil: Days that Shook Korea," New York Times, 7/6/87; and Kristof, Nicholas D., "Seoul Protesters Fight Government with Huge Rally," New York Times, 7/9/87.

Copyright © 1994 by the University of Michigan. First published in the USA by the University of Michigan Press, 1994.

Published on the World Wide Web by The Quaker Economist with permission from the University of Michigan Press, 2005.

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